Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (ISPU)
While some may find the existence of Islamophobia among Muslims shocking, it is in line with our prior research showing that Muslims experience internalized Islamophobia by endorsing false negative stereotypes about Muslims as measured by the Islamophobia Index (Mogahed et al., 2022; Mogahed et al., 2020; Ikramullah, 2019; Mogahed & Chouhoud, 2018). Readers can refer to this prior research for a deeper understanding of internalized Islamophobia, including its predictors and the role of media.
White Muslims Score Highest on Islamophobia
Among Muslims, there is a wide range of perceptions regarding Islamophobic ideas. Muslims who identify as white are the most likely to endorse false Islamophobic tropes, scoring a 31 on the Islamophobia Index, lower than white (35) and Hispanic Americans (34) in the general public but higher than Black Americans (29) in the general public. Notably, white Muslims are also far more likely than non-white Muslims to have voted for President Trump. A plurality of white Muslims (49%) voted for Trump, compared to 14% of Asian Muslims and 21% of Black Muslims. Sample sizes of Arab and Hispanic Muslim voters are too small to report on. Black Muslims score a 24 on the Islamophobia Index, lower than Black (29), white (35), and Hispanic Americans (34) in the general public. By far the lowest Islamophobia Index scores are among Asian (12) and Arab Americans (8), revealing a fracture in the Muslim community regarding the very nature of the U.S. faith group, requiring more research, community conversations, and healing.
Islamophobia and Presidential Candidate Choice in 2024
Trump Voters, Including Muslims, Significantly Higher on the Islamophobia Index
Muslims who voted for Trump in the 2024 presidential election have a higher Islamophobia Index score than many other groups, including the general public. While Trump voters in the general public have an Islamophobia Index score of 46, his supporters in the Muslim community are not far behind with a score of 43 on this measure of endorsement of anti-Muslim stereotypes.
Likewise, Muslim Harris voters scored a 21 on the Islamophobia Index, surpassing their counterparts in the general public who scored 19. Muslims who voted for Jill Stein have the lowest Islamophobia score of 5. This pattern suggests that, for Muslims, support for either of the main candidates comes with a degree of buy-in for an Islamophobic narrative, even more so than is present in the general public among their partisan peers.
Predictors of Islamophobia
Trump Vote and Conservative Views Strongest Predictors of Islamophobia
To better understand which factors are associated with higher levels of Islamophobia, we ran a linear regression analysis testing how a battery of variables predict higher Islamophobia Index scores. Overwhelmingly, we find that a vote for Trump in 2024 and conservative political views were stronger predictors of higher Islamophobia Index scores than age, race, or income in the general public and among Muslims.
A Trump Vote Predicts Higher Islamophobia
Among the general public, identifying as somewhat or very conservative closely mirrors a Trump vote in predicting Islamophobia, where a general public respondent is 13% more likely to endorse anti-Muslim tropes if they identify as a conservative. Political ideology has no impact on a Muslim’s perception of anti-Muslim tropes however, but a vote cast for Trump makes a Muslim 18% more likely to endorse anti-Muslim tropes.
Higher Income Predicts Lower Islamophobia
Among the general public, those with high income ($75,000+) are 12% less likely to score high on the Islamophobia Index. Income has no impact on Muslim Islamophobia Index scores.
Age, Gender, and Nativity Are Significantly Linked to Levels of Islamophobia
Muslims between 45 and 59 years of age (20%) and those born in the U.S. (10%) were more likely to score high on the Islamophobia Index, while women were less likely to adopt Islamophobic tropes. These factors have no impact on Islamophobia among the general public.
Religiosity Has No Impact on Islamophobic Perceptions for the General Public
Religious devotion has no impact on Islamophobia in the general public. This suggests that for the general public, political ideology and not religious differences—even strongly held ones—drive anti-Muslim prejudice. Religious devotion had no impact on the Islamophobia score for Muslims. For Muslims it suggests that Islamophobia is not driven by low religious devotion but rather age, nativism, and their support of Trump.